On the equivalence between homogeneously prepared sources and sources prepared by seeding in layers for different geometries, energies and matrix parameters.

Measuring the radioactive content of environmental samples requires the use of appropriate reference materials with the same composition and density as the matrices to be measured. If they are not available, ad hoc artificially spiked reference materials are an alternative. Spiking in layers requires a detailed study of the drop distribution, as energy and decay scheme of the component radionuclides must be taken into account to produce a reference material that represents, in efficiency terms, a real sample. A method based on Monte Carlo simulation has been developed to find the optimal distribution of drops in layers for the combination of two typical soil samples and four radionuclides. Results have been validated by comparison with samples prepared by two techniques: methanol bath and spiking in layers.

The half-life of 129I.

The radionuclide 129I is a long-lived fission product that decays to 129Xe by beta-particle emission. It is an important tracer in geological and biological processes and is considered one of the most important radionuclides to be assessed in studies of global circulation. It is also one of the major contributors to radiation dose from nuclear waste in a deep geological repository. Its half-life has been obtained by a combination of activity and mass concentration measurements in the frame of a cooperation of 6 European metrology institutes. The value obtained for the half-life of 129I is 16.14 (12) × 106 a, in good agreement with recommended data but with a significant improvement in the uncertainty.

Determination of the absolute photon emission intensities of some gamma rays of 166mHo.

This paper presents the results of the absolute measurement of some photon emission intensities in the decay of 166mHo. Point sources from a reference solution standardized in the frame of the EURAMET.RI (II)-K2. Ho-166m activity comparison were measured by gamma spectrometry. The detection efficiency was obtained by Monte Carlo calculations including the complete decay scheme. Results obtained for 27 gamma and X-ray emissions are compared to reference values.

Advancements in NORM metrology - Results and impact of the European joint research project MetroNORM.

The results of the three years European Metrology Research Programme's (EMRP) joint research project 'Metrology for processing materials with high natural radioactivity' (MetroNORM) are presented. In this project, metrologically sound novel instruments and procedures for laboratory and in-situ NORM activity measurements have been developed. Additionally, standard reference materials and sources for traceable calibration and improved decay data of natural radionuclides have been established.

Measurement of NORM samples with CeBr3 detectors.

This paper discusses the use of CeBr3 detectors for the analysis of NORM samples. These detectors have a number of characteristics that make them suitable to field measurements: they can work at ambient temperatures, have better energy resolution than NaI(Tl) detectors for energies over 100keV and do not present the radioactive contamination typical of the lanthanum halides detectors. Results of the measurements made at the laboratory for three reference materials are compared to those made using a conventional HPGe gamma-ray spectrometer system. Spectra from both measurement systems are presented and discussed.

Application of an artificial neural network for evaluation of activity concentration exemption limits in NORM industry.

NORM emits many different gamma energies that have to be analysed by an expert. Alternatively, artificial neural networks (ANNs) can be used. These mathematical software tools can generalize "knowledge" gained from training datasets, applying it to new problems. No expert knowledge of gamma-ray spectrometry is needed by the end-user. In this work an ANN was created that is able to decide from the raw gamma-ray spectrum if the activity concentrations in a sample are above or below the exemption limits.

(60)Co in cast steel matrix: A European interlaboratory comparison for the characterisation of new activity standards for calibration of gamma-ray spectrometers in metallurgy.

Two series of activity standards of (60)Co in cast steel matrix, developed for the calibration of gamma-ray spectrometry systems in the metallurgical sector, were characterised using a European interlaboratory comparison among twelve National Metrology Institutes and one international organisation. The first standard, consisting of 14 disc shaped samples, was cast from steel contaminated during production ("originally"), and the second, consisting of 15 similar discs, from artificially-contaminated ("spiked") steel. The reference activity concentrations of (60)Co in the cast steel standards were (1.077±0.019) Bqg(-1) on 1 January 2013 12h00 UT and (1.483±0.022) Bqg(-1) on 1 June 2013 12h00 UT, respectively.

Standardization of Sn-113.

The radionuclide (113)Sn is a quasi-monoenergetic gamma emitter often used in the efficiency calibration of gamma spectrometers in the energy region around 390keV. This paper presents the results of the standardization of this radionuclide by three methods: integral (4π-γ) counting with a well-type NaI(Tl) detector, liquid scintillation counting applying the CIEMAT-NIST method and 4π coincidence counting (conversion electron-X) with a digital coincidence system.

Optimization of a measurement facility for radioactive waste free release by Monte Carlo simulation.

A novel free release measurement facility (FRMF) was developed within the joint research project "Metrology for Radioactive Waste Management" of the European Metrology Research Programme. Before and during FRMF design and construction, Monte Carlo calculations with MCNPX and PENELOPE codes were used to optimize the thickness of the shielding, the dimensions of the container, and the shape of detector collimators. Validation of the numerical models of the FRMF detectors and the results of the optimization are discussed in the paper.

Standardization of Ga-68 by coincidence measurements, liquid scintillation counting and 4πγ counting.

The radionuclide (68)Ga is one of the few positron emitters that can be prepared in-house without the use of a cyclotron. It disintegrates to the ground state of (68)Zn partially by positron emission (89.1%) with a maximum energy of 1899.1 keV, and partially by electron capture (10.9%). This nuclide has been standardized in the frame of a cooperation project between the Radionuclide Metrology laboratories from CIEMAT (Spain) and CNEA (Argentina). Measurements involved several techniques: 4πß-γ coincidences, integral gamma counting and Liquid Scintillation Counting using the triple to double coincidence ratio and the CIEMAT/NIST methods. Given the short half-life of the radionuclide assayed, a direct comparison between results from both laboratories was excluded and a comparison of experimental efficiencies of similar NaI detectors was used instead.